TEXTS OF BUDDISM

Buddhist Texts

1. Vinaya Pitaka

1. Meaning: “Book of Discipline”
2. Deals with rules and regulations of the Buddhist Sangha.
3. Mainly concerned with monks and nuns.

2. Abhidhamma Pitaka

Deals with Buddhist philosophy, doctrine

3. Jatakas

Collection of stories about the previous births of Buddha.

4. Milinda Panha

1. Meaning: “Questions of Milinda”
2. Contains a dialogue between:
   1. King Menander (Milinda) – Indo-Greek king
   1. Nagasena – Buddhist monk
3. Discusses Buddhist philosophy and teachings

5. Dipavamsa

1. Written in Pali.
2. Important source for Sri Lankan Buddhist history.

6. Mahavamsa

1. Written in Pali.
2. Describes the history of Sri Lanka and its kings.

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7. Buddhacharita

1. Author: Ashvaghosha
2. Language: Sanskrit
3. Subject: Life of Buddha

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Hinayana, Mahayana & Vajrayana

1. Hinayana

• Core idea: Follows original teachings of Buddha.
• Main focus: Individual salvation through:
  • Self-discipline
  • Meditation
• Ultimate goal: Nirvana
• Language: Pali used.
• Practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos

2. Mahayana

• Core idea: liberation is possible for all beings.
• View of Buddha: Buddha is regarded as God
• Buddha worship started
• Language: Sanskrit
• Practiced in  China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia.

3. Vajrayana

• Uses:
  • Complex rituals
  • Mantras
  • Tantric practices
  • Symbolic/ritual techniques
• Goal: Rapid spiritual transformation/enlightenment
• Practiced in Tibet

Buddhism Introduction

1. Life of Gautama Buddha

• Siddhartha Gautama born in 563 BC at Kapilavastu.
• He belonged to Gautama family and Shakya clan.
• His father was Shuddhodhana,  chief of  Shakya clan.
• His mother was Mahamaya.
• He married Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula.
• At  age of 29, he left his family and became an ascetic. This is called Mahabhinishkramana (Great Departure).
• At the age of 35, he attained enlightenment at Gaya, under a Peepal/Bodhi tree.
• After enlightenment, he was called Buddha, meaning “ Enlightened One.”
• His first sermon was delivered at Sarnath. It is known as Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (“Turning of the Wheel of Dharma”).
• His first disciples included Kaundinya
• Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar around 483 BC

2. Four Noble Truths

1. Dukkha — Suffering

• Life involves suffering.
• Pain, illness, old age, death, separation, etc. cause suffering.

2. Samudaya — Cause of Suffering

Desire and attachment are  main causes of suffering.

3. Nirodha — End of Suffering

• Suffering can be ended.
• By overcoming desire and attachment, a person can attain Nirvana/Nibbana.

4. Magga — Path to End Suffering

Way to end suffering is Noble Eightfold Path.

3. Noble Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path is the way to overcome suffering and attain enlightenment.

1. Right View — Understand reality correctly.
2. Right Intention — Have good and peaceful intentions.
3. Right Speech — Do not lie, abuse or gossip.
4. Right Action — Do good actions and avoid harming others.
5. Right Livelihood — Earn a living through an honest occupation.
6. Right Effort — Make effort to develop good qualities.
7. Right Mindfulness — Be aware of your thoughts, feelings and actions.
8. Right Concentration — Develop a focused and calm mind.

4. Main Ideas of Buddhism

•  main aim of Buddhism is enlightenment.
• Buddhism teaches a Middle Way — avoid both:
  • excessive pleasure/self-indulgence
  • extreme self-denial
•  ultimate goal is Nibbana/Nirvana.
• Nibbana is an experience/state of liberation, not a physical place.
• Buddhism does not depend on belief in a creator God.
• Buddha taught people to overcome desire, attachment and ignorance.
• Buddhism emphasizes ethical conduct, meditation and wisdom.

5. Five Precepts (Pancasila)

Buddhist lay followers are taught to avoid:

1. Violence/killing
2. Stealing
3. Sexual misconduct
4. False speech
5. Intoxicants

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DNA & GENOME

DNA & Genome

1. What is DNA?

• DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
• DNA is the genetic material of most living organisms.
• It can be understood as:
  • Code of life → contains instructions for making and maintaining an organism.
  • Vehicle of heredity → carries genetic information from parents to offspring.
• DNA contains genes, which carry instructions mainly for making proteins.
• In humans, most DNA is present in the nucleus.

2. What is a Chromosome?

• A chromosome is a thread-like structure made mainly of DNA + proteins.
• It carries genetic information.
• Humans normally have 46 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
  • 22 pairs → autosomes.
  • 1 pair → sex chromosomes.
• Female: XX.
• Male: XY.
• Human chromosomes together contain about 3.2 billion base pairs of DNA.

3. What is a Genome?

• Genome = complete set of genetic material/DNA of an organism.
• It includes:
  • Genes.
  • Non-coding regions.
• The human genome is distributed mainly across 23 pairs of chromosomes.

4. Building Blocks of DNA

The basic unit of DNA is called a nucleotide.

Each nucleotide has 3 parts:

1. Deoxyribose sugar.
2. Phosphate group.
3. Nitrogenous base.

5. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

• DNA is found mainly in the nucleus, but mitochondria also contain DNA.
• This is called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
• Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell because they produce ATP ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the main energy currency of the cell, providing energy for cellular activities.

6. What is RNA?

• RNA = Ribonucleic Acid.
• Usually single-stranded.
• RNA helps in protein synthesis.

7. Genes & Human Genome

• A gene is a functional segment of DNA containing information needed to produce a functional product, often a protein.
• Humans have approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes.
• Only about 1–2% of the human genome directly codes for proteins.
• The remaining DNA includes many non-coding regions with important regulatory and other functions.

8. Epigenetics

What is epigenetics?

• Epigenetics = changes in gene activity/expression without changing the DNA sequence itself.
• Almost all cells in the body contain essentially the same genome.
• Yet cells have different structures and functions.

Why?

Because different genes are switched ON or OFF in different cells.

For example:

• Heart cells express genes needed for heart function.
• Kidney cells express genes needed for kidney function.

9. Applications of Genome Sequencing

Medical

• Detect genetic mutations.
• Diagnose some inherited disorders.
• Help understand cancers.
• Support personalised medicine.

Agriculture

• Identify genes responsible for desirable traits.
• Help in selective breeding of crops and livestock.

Prenatal Screening

• Can help detect certain genetic/chromosomal abnormalities in a fetus.

Forensics

• DNA information can help:
  • Identify individuals.
  • Establish biological relationships such as paternity.

Evolution

• Helps study evolutionary relationships and ancestry.

10. Genetic Variation / Polymorphism

• Humans are genetically very similar, but individuals still have many DNA differences.
• A genetic variant is a difference in DNA sequence between individuals.
• Polymorphism generally refers to a genetic variation that is relatively common in a population.
• Variations can influence:
  • Physical traits.
  • Disease susceptibility.
  • Response to medicines.
  • Ancestry.
  • Biological relationships.

Himalai Keshav Sir’s UPSC & IAS Classes are specially designed for students, working professionals, and homemakers who have limited time but a strong dream of becoming an IAS Officer, District Collector Magistrate.